The Scopes Trial (1925)

"I am simply trying to protect the word of God against the greatest atheist or agnostic in the United States. (Prolonged applause.) I want the papers to know I am not afraid to get on the stand in front of him and let him do his worst. I want the world to know." (Prolonged applause.)

– William Jennings Bryan on the witness stand on day seven of the Scopes Trial, July 20, 1925.

"Mr. Bryan: Your honor, I think I can shorten this testimony. The only purpose Mr. Darrow has is to slur at the Bible, but I will answer his question. I will answer it all at once, and I have no objection in the world, I want the world to know that this man, who does not believe in God, is trying to use a court in Tennessee...

Mr. Darrow: I object to that.

Mr. Bryan: ...to slur at it, and while it will require time, I am willing to take it.

Mr. Darrow: I object to your statement. I am exempting you on your fool ideas that no intelligent Christian on earth believes."

– William Jennings Bryan being cross-examined by Clarence Darrow, at the end of day seven, of the Scopes Trial, July 20, 1925.

Trial Documents

Trial Transcripts

Day One

Day One: Transcript of Scopes Trial, Friday July 10, 1925.

Day Two

Day Two: Transcript of Scopes Trial, Monday July 13, 1925.

Defense Motion to Quash Indictment (page 47) | Judge Retires Jury (page 53) | Hays Argues for Motion (page 55) | Stewart Answers for State (page 61) | Darrow's Arraignment of the Act (page 74).

Days Three & Four

Days Three & Four: Transcript of Scopes Trial, Tuesday July 14 & Wednesday July 15, 1925.

Third Day, Tuesday, July 14, 1925
Darrow Objects to Prayer (page 89) | Unitarians', Jews' and Congregationalists' Petition on Prayer (page 92) | Court Tells of News Leak-Withholds Decision on Motion to Quash (page 92).

Fourth Day, Wednesday, July 15, 1925
More Argument over Prayer in Court (page 95) | Press Committee Investigates News Leak (page 97) | Judge Overrules Motion to Quash (page 100) | Defense Pleads Not Guilty and States Case (page 112) | Testimony of State's Witnesses (page 119) | Testimony of Dr. Metcalf for Defense (page 133).

Day Five

Day Five: Transcript of Scopes Trial, Thursday July 16, 1925.

Battle over Admission of Scientific Testimony (page 144) | Bryan's Son Speaks for State (page 150) | Sue Hicks for State (page 160) | Hays for Defense (page 153) | Ben McKenzie, "We have done crossed the Rubicon" (page 165) | Mr. Bryan on Exclusion of Evidence (page 170) | Malone's Fiery Speech in Reply to Bryan (page 183) | Stewart Closes Argument on Admission of Expert Testimony (page 190).

Days Six & Seven

Days Six & Seven: Transcript of Scopes Trial, Friday July 17 & Monday July 20, 1925.

Sixth Day, Friday, July 17, 1925
Judge's Decision Excluding Expert's Testimony (page 201) | Defense Excepts (page 203) | Further Argument on Court's Ruling (page 203) | Colloquy Which Leads to Darrow's Citation for Contempt (page 206).

Seventh Day, Monday, July 20, 1925
Darrow Cited for Contempt (page 211) | Governor's Message (page 213) | New Text Books Offered by Defense (page 214).
STATEMENTS BY DEFENSE
Darrow Apologizes-Forgiven (page 225) | Rabbi Rosenwasser (page 227 | Rev. W. C. Whitaker (page 228) | Dr. H. E. Murkett (page 229) | Would Call Burbank (page 230).
NOTED SCIENTISTS' STATEMENTS
Chas. Hubbard Judd (page 231) | Jacob L. Lipman (page 232) | Dr. Fay Cooper Cole (page 234) | Wilber A. Nelson (page 238) | Kirtley F. Mather (page 241) | Maynard M. Metcalf (page 251) | Winterton C. Curtis (page 254) | Prof. Horatio H. Newman (page 263) | The Sign, "Read Your Bible," Gives Offense (page 280) | Other Bibles Introduced (page 283) | Bryan on Witness Stand (page 284).

Day Eight

Day Eight: Transcript of Scopes Trial, Tuesday July 21, 1925.

Preliminary Motion to Strike Out the So-Called Bill of Exceptions (1925).

Prosecution's motion to strike the Scopes defense's bill of exceptions from the transcript of the record. The prosecution was successful because Scopes' local counsel, John R. Neal, failed to file the bill within the required time.

Statement of Wilbur A. Nelson, State Geologist of Tennessee.

Wilbur Nelson was one of eight scientific experts for the defense. Only Dr. Maynard Metcalf was allowed to testify and the other experts were allowed to submit written statements for the record on appeal.

Winterton C. Curtis, Zoologist, University of Missouri.

Dr. Curtis was one of eight scientific experts for the defense. Only Dr. Maynard Metcalf was allowed to testify and the other experts were allowed to submit written statements for the record on appeal.

Statement of Horatio Hackett Newman, Zoologist, University of Chicago.

Dr. Newman was one of eight scientific experts for the defense. Only Dr. Maynard Metcalf was allowed to testify and the other experts were allowed to submit written statements for the record on appeal.

Statement of Fay Cooper Cole, Anthropologist, University of Chicago.

Dr. Cole was one of eight scientific experts for the defense. Only Dr. Maynard Metcalf was allowed to testify and the other experts were allowed to submit written statements for the record on appeal.

Statement of Kirtley F. Mather, Chairman of the Department of Geology of Harvard University.

Kirtley Mather was one of eight scientific experts for the defense. Only Dr. Maynard Metcalf was allowed to testify and the other experts were allowed to submit written statements for the record on appeal..

Reply Brief and Argument for the State of Tennessee in Scopes v. Tennessee.

Filed by Frank M. Thompson, Attorney-General, Ed. T. Seay and K.T. McConnico, Special Counsel for the State of Tennessee.

Genesis 1, 2 in The Holy Bible containing the Old and New Testaments: Holman Pronouncing Edition 7-8 (A.J. Holman 1902).

Because it was alleged that Scopes had taught a doctrine denying the story of the Divine creation of man, Judge Raulston read the first chapter of Genesis to the jury. Later Holman's Pronouncing Edition version of the Bible was entered into evidence during the trial. Just before resting the state's case, Prosecutor Stewart asked that the first two chapters of Genesis be read into the record.

Statement of Facts, Assignment of Errors, Brief and Argument in Behalf of John Thomas Scopes, Plaintiff in Error.

Brief for Scopes' appeal of his conviction for violating Tennessee's Anti-Evolution Act. Unfortunately, Scopes' local counsel, John R. Neal, failed to file a bill of exceptions within 30 days after the trial and the trial court struck the bill of exceptions from the record. Thus the defense could only ask the Tennessee Supreme Court to take judicial notice of much of the material in this brief since it could not be part of the appeal. Nevertheless, the brief is an important source of information about the constitutional and religious issues generated by the trial. Handwriting on top is very likely by Arthur Garfield Hays and says: Dear Sam: Many corrections have been made in this. The Last Proof. AGH

Handwritten draft of Brief by Scopes Defense (Part I, 1926).

Handwritten draft with typed translation. The author of this brief is unknown but the two main brief writers for the Scopes appeal were Arthur Garfield Hays and Robert S. Keebler, a Memphis attorney. Words or letters that are not clear are translated in bold. Words or letters that are undecipherable are marked with "?" marks.

Handwritten draft of Brief by Scopes Defense (Part II, 1926).

Words or letters that are undecipherable are marked with "?" marks.

Witnesses for the Defense in the Scopes Trial 1925, 3 pages.

A list of the witnesses for the defense in the State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes trial on the theory of evolution being taught in schools. Witnesses are organized by their scientific disciplines to support the defense's stance that evolution should be taught in public schools, even though some religions disagree with the theory. Two pages, front and back of first page, only one side of second page. The Digital Public Library of America. http://siris-sihistory.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?&profile=all&source=~!sichronology&uri=full=3100001~!12889~!0#focus

Cases

Ragio v. State, 86 Tenn. 272, 6 S.W. 401 (1888).

Ragio, a barber, was convicted for violating a Tennessee statute making it a "misdemeanor for any one engaged in the business of a barber . . . to keep open his bath-rooms on Sunday, but not prohibiting other persons from doing so." On appeal, the Supreme Court of Tennessee held that the statute was "class legislation" and thus violated Article XI, Section 8, of the State Constitution. The Scopes defense relied on this case and Darrow made humorous references to it during the trial.

Leeper v. State, 103 Tenn. 500, 53 S.W. 962 (1899).

The Supreme Court of Tennessee affirmed Edward Leeper's conviction for violating Tennessee's "Uniform Text-Book Act." The state textbook commission had adopted and prescribed for use in the public schools Frye's Introductory Geography as a uniform textbook but Leeper "willfully and unlawfully taught Butler's and the New Eclectic Elementary Geography" which according to the indictment was "against the peace and dignity of the state." Leeper was sentenced to pay a fine of $10 and costs. This case was cited during the Scopes trial. It was also cited in Scopes' appeal - Scopes v. State, 289 S.W. 363, 154 Tenn. 105 (1927).

Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923).

Nebraska, along with other states, prohibited the teaching of modern foreign languages to grade school children. Meyer, who taught German in a Lutheran school, was convicted under this law. The Court held the Nebraska law was unconstitutional. The statute violated the liberty protected by due process of the Fourteenth Amendment. The legislative purpose of the law was to promote assimilation and civic development but these purposes were not adequate to justify interfering with Meyer's liberty to teach or the liberty of parents to employ him as a teacher. This case was cited during the trial.

Letter written to Defense suggesting Butler Act violates the Tennessee Constitution (1925).

Letter in Darrow papers in which the writer suggests that the Butler Act violates the section of the Tennessee Constitution that places a duty on the General Assembly "to cherish literature and science." The Scopes defense did raise this argument in the trial and in its brief to the Supreme Court of Tennessee.

Pierce v. Society of the Sisters, 268 U.S. 510, 45 S.Ct. 571 (1925).

This case was decided during the Scopes controversy and Scopes' defense team cited it during the trial and subsequent appeals. The plaintiffs challenged the Oregon Compulsory Education Act adopted November 7, 1922 and to become effective on September 1, 1926, requiring every parent, guardian, or other person having control or charge or custody of a child between 8 and 16 years old to send him "to a public school for the period of time a public school shall be held during the current year" in the district where the child resided. Failure so to do so would be a misdemeanor. The Court held the Act unconstitutional as a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Court stated, "[W]e think it entirely plain that the Act of 1922 unreasonably interferes with the liberty of parents and guardians to direct the upbringing and education of children under their control."

Scopes v. State, 152 Tenn. 424 (1925).

The Supreme Court of Tennessee sustained the State of Tennessee's motion to strike the bill of exceptions from the record because Scopes' defense had filed it too late.

Scopes v. State, 154 Tenn. 105 (1927).

The Supreme Court of Tennessee reversed Scopes' conviction: "This record discloses that the jury found the defendant below guilty, but did not assess the fine. The trial judge himself undertook to impose the minimum fine of $100 authorized by the statute. This was error. Under . . . the Constitution of Tennessee, a fine in excess of $50 must be assessed by a jury. The statute before us does not permit the imposition of a smaller fine than $100. Since a jury alone can impose the penalty this act requires, and as a matter of course no different penalty can be inflicted, the trial judge exceeded his jurisdiction in levying this fine, and we are without power to correct his error. The judgment must accordingly be reversed." The court concluded its opinion with: "The court is informed that the plaintiff in error is no longer in the service of the state. We see nothing to be gained by prolonging the life of this bizarre case. On the contrary, we think the peace and dignity of the state, which all criminal prosecutions are brought to redress, will be the better conserved by the entry of a nolle prosequi herein. Such a course is suggested to the Attorney General."

Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578, 107 S.Ct. 2573 (1987).

The Court held that Louisiana's "Balanced Treatment for Creation-Science and Evolution-Science in Public School Instruction" Act (La.Rev.Stat.Ann. Secs. 17:286.1-17:286.7) was facially invalid. The statute violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment because it lacked a clear secular purpose.

Doe v. Porter, 188 F. Supp. 2d. 904 (2002).

For several years the Rhea County Board of Education in Dayton Tennessee allowed staff and students from Bryan College to conduct a program known as the Bible Education Ministry ("BEM") in the Rhea county public elementary schools. Plaintiffs filed a lawsuit seeking to enjoin the school board practice of permitting the teaching of the Christian Bible as religious truth in public schools. The trial court held that religious instruction in public school classes constituted an unconstitutional establishment of religion.

Doe v. Porter, 370 F.3d 558 (6th Cir. 2004).

The Sixth Circuit affirmed the trial court's holding that religious instruction in public school classes constituted an unconstitutional establishment of religion.

Statutes

The Maryland Toleration Act of 1649.

Enacted as "An Act Concerning Religion," this statute is most often referred to as The Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 or Maryland's Act of Toleration. This act was referred to during the Scopes trial.

The Virginia Act for Establishing Religious Freedom.

This act was drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1779, three years after he wrote the Declaration of Independence, and enacted by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Virginia in 1786. The act and Jefferson's views about religious freedom were referred to several times during the Scopes trial.

Kentucky Anti-evolution Bill & Resolution Inviting William Jennings Bryan to Address General Assembly.

S. Res. 12 invited William Jennings Bryan and H.B. 191 would prohibit evolution. The anti-evolution bill was defeated in March 1922.

House Concurrent Resolution No. 7 (1923).

Florida House of Representatives resolution condemned, but did not ban, the teaching of evolution in public schools. William Jennings Bryan was instrumental in getting the resolution passed in his adoptive state.

1925 Tennessee Anti-Evolution Act.

Tennessee Anti-Evolution Act was known as the Butler Act because it was introduced by John Washington Butler (1875 - 1952).

An Act Prohibiting the Teaching of the Evolution Theory (Butler Act) (1925).

The Tennessee statute Scopes violated was called the Butler Act because it was proposed by John Washington Butler, a Tennessee farmer and member of the state legislature. Clarence Darrow wrote in his autobiography: "From any point of view, the law was silly and senseless. At the time of its passage, even in the States of Tennessee and Mississippi the schools were teaching that the earth was round instead of flat, and the day and night were due to the revolution of the earth on its axis and not from the sun and the moon going around it . . . . This and many other things, taught in the public schools down there, are flatly contrary to Genesis and, in fact, they refute the Bible account much more clearly than does the doctrine of evolution." Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life.

An Act to Establish and Maintain a Uniform System of Public Education (1925).

This Tennessee law "to establish and maintain a uniform system of Public Education" passed on April 16, 1925, approximately three weeks after passage of the Butler Act. Part of the reason Governor Peay signed the Butler Act into law was to garner legislative support to pass this education law. Among its many provisions it states: "It shall be the duty of the teacher: 4. To read, or cause to be read at the opening of the school everyday, a selection from the Bible and, the same selection shall not be read more than twice, a month."

An Act to Repeal Section 49-1922, Tennessee Code, Prohibiting The Teaching of Evolution.

This Tennessee statute repealed the 1925 Butler anti-evolution act at issue in the Scopes trial. It was passed on May 16, 1967 and took effect on September 1, 1967.

Government Documents

Constitution of the State of Tennessee (1917).

This annotated version of the Tennessee Constitution from Shannon's Code was referred to by the prosecution during the Scopes trial. Both the prosecution and defense made numerous references to several sections of the Tennessee Constitution.

Tennessee Governor Peay's Signing Statement (1925).

Due to the intense interest, Governor Peay gave his reasons for signing the Butler bill into law.

Senate Journal of the Sixty-Fourth General Assembly of the State of Tennessee.

On March 13, 1925 the Tennessee Senate voted for passage of House Bill No. 185, known as the "Butler Act."

1928 Opinion of the Attorney General of Tennessee.

The Attorney General of Tennessee provided an opinion on the constitutionality of teaching the Bible in schools under Art. 1, Sec. 3 of the Constitution of Tennessee.

Address of the President at the Dedication of the Bryan Memorial (1934).

President Franklin D. Roosevelt made an address dedicating a statue of William Jennings Bryan created by Gutzon Borglum, the sculptor of Mt. Rushmore. The statue originally stood in Washington, D.C. but was moved in 1961 to Salem, Illinois, Bryan's birthplace. The statue is located across from Bryan Memorial Park.

Pamphlets

Absurdities of the Bible by Clarence Darrow.

"I won't bother to discuss just what religion is, but I think a fair definition of religion could take account of two things, at least, immortality and God, and that both of them are based on some book, so practically all of it is a book."

The Prince of Peace by William Jennings Bryan (1931).

Bryan gave this lecture at many religious meetings and Chautauquas beginning in 1904.

What is Religion? by Colonel Robert G. Ingersoll (1899).

Robert G. Ingersoll (1833-1899) was a prominent agnostic, lawyer and public speaker who greatly influenced Clarence Darrow. This is Ingersoll's last public address.

The Bible and Its Enemies by William Jennings Bryan (1921).

An Address delivered at the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago.

The Menace of Darwinism by William Jennings Bryan (1931).

Chapter IV of Bryan's book, In His Image, is republished in a separate booklet which contains nine religious lectures Bryan gave in October 1921 at the Union Theological Seminary in Richmond, Virginia.

Darrow-Case Debate: Has Religion Ceased to Function? (1921).

Darrow argued in the affirmative against Professor Shirley Jackson Case who taught in the Divinity School of the University of Chicago.

Evolution and Mr. Bryan by Harry Emerson Fosdick (1922).

Fosdick, a noted theologian, was asked to reply by the New York Times to William Jennings Bryan's statement "God and Evolution."

The Evolution Issue by T.T. Martin.

This address was delivered in Los Angeles, California on October 28, 1923.

Evolution or Christ? Christ or Hell? by T.T. Martin (1923).

Address delivered in Los Angeles, California, November 11, 1923.

Should Evolution Be Taught in Tax Supported Schools? (1925).

"The Arguments Against Delivered by W.B. Riley in the McCabe-Riley Debates." W.B. Riley was an influential religious leader, anti-evolutionist and pastor of the First Baptist Church in Minneapolis for 45 years. William Jennings Bryan once called Riley "the greatest Christian statesman in the American pulpit."

Absurdities of the Bible (1931).

Darrow criticizes a literal interpretation of the Bible in this text. Published several years after the Scopes trial, the document includes other short articles such as "Rev. Ben M. Bogard Fails to Halt Devil Darrow."

Magazine Articles

Quotations from William Jennings Bryan on Evolution.

This piece was published in Science magazine in 1922.

The Vote on the Evolution Bill in the Kentucky State Legislature (1922).

A description of the one vote defeat of a Kentucky anti-evolution bill is published in Science.

The Teaching of Evolution (1922).

This article in Science magazine discusses teaching evolution and makes several references to William Jennings Bryan.

Kentucky and the Theory of Evolution (1922).

This report on anti-evolution legislation in Kentucky was published in Science, vol. LV, No. 1416.

"William Jennings Bryan as a Social Force" by Malcolm M. Willey and Stuart A. Rice (1923).

This article appeared in The Journal of Social Forces and presents an analysis of Mr. Bryan's impact on the views of Dartmouth students towards evolution. Based on student surveys, the authors demonstrate that students were less certain about the doctrine of evolution after listening to Mr. Bryan.

"A Very Liberal Church" (1925).

This brief reference to the "Liberal Church" in Denver that elected Clarence Darrow to honorary church membership because of his role in the Scopes trial was published in Liberty: A Magazine of Religious Freedom.

Editorial in The Crisis (1925).

An editorial in The Crisis, the official magazine of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), discussed the Scopes trial.

Newspapers

God and Evolution: Charge that American Teachers of Darwinism "Make the Bible a Scrap of Paper" (1922).

William Jennings Bryan responds to an invitation from the New York Times to present objections to the theory of evolution as applied to man.

Answer to Bryan on Evolution.

This anonymous defense of evolution was written in response to an attack on evolution by William Jennings Bryan published in the New York Herald on March 19, 1922.

If Monkeys Could Speak (1925).

This editorial about the Scopes trial appeared in the Chicago Defender, a leading black newspaper. The writer states that because the theory of evolution means all people came from a common origin, anti-evolutionists really fear that evolution means the races are equal.

Oregon School Law Declared Invalid by Supreme Court (1925).

This newspaper clipping from the Clarence Darrow papers is about the "Oregon School" law case. The case, Pierce v. Society of the Sisters, was decided during the Scopes controversy and the Scopes defense team cited it during the trial and in subsequent appeals.

Books

History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science by John William Draper (1875).

Edward J. Larson in his book Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion (2006) explains that John Draper and Andrew Dickson White wrote very popular but biased histories of the conflict between science and religion. Larson states that neither Draper or White reported that the conflict had grown less antagonistic and most prominent scientists were devout Christians. Draper and White's works were influential in portraying a heated conflict between science and religion. Larson also relates that this influenced Clarence Darrow's father and his son who both read Draper's work. Clarence Darrow also quoted Draper in speeches.

Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature by Thomas H. Huxley (1886).

Thomas Huxley was one of the most influential proponents of Darwin's theory of evolution. Originally published in 1863, this is Huxley's most famous work.

Victorious Democracy: Embracing Life and Patriotic Services of Hon. William J. Bryan (1900).

This book promoting William Jennings Bryan for President was written for the 1900 election. It also includes information about Bryan's Vice Presidential running mate, Adlai E. Stevenson (1835-1914).

An Outline of the Theory of Organic Evolution by Maynard Mayo Metcalf (1904).

Dr. Metcalf was the only defense scientific expert allowed to testify on the stand during the Scopes trial. At the time of the trial, Dr. Metcalf was a zoologist from the Johns Hopkins University.

Illogical Geology: The Weakest Point in the Evolution Theory by George McCready.

Price had to borrow money to self-publish Illogical Geology, his second book. He borrowed the name from Herbert Spencer. Price updated his 1906 book when he published The Fundamentals of Geology in 1913.

The Finality of the Higher Criticism, or The Theory of Evolution and False Theology by William Bell Riley (1909).

William Bell Riley began his ministry as pastor of the First Baptist Church in Minneapolis, Minnesota and served there for 45 years. Riley has been identified as the first Fundamentalist leader to link "higher criticism" with the theory of evolution. Higher criticism is an inquiry into the genuineness of Bible teaching. Lower criticism, also called textual criticism, tries to determine what a text originally said before it was altered by mistake or intentionally. Lower criticism evaluates which Bible texts are most accurate. Higher criticism views the Bible as a text created by human beings with various motives at different periods of time. Lower criticism views the Bible as the inerrant word of God. In this book, Riley argues that the liberal theology of higher criticism is a result of accepting the theory of evolution.

A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom by Andrew Dickson White ) (Volume I) (1910).

Andrew Dickson White (November 7, 1832 - November 4, 1918) was a co-founder of Cornell University as well as a U.S. diplomat, author, and educator. White and John William Draper helped maintain the perception of hostility between science and religion.

A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom by Andrew Dickson White (Volume II) (1910).

This is the second volume of Andrew Dickson White's work.

A Civic Biology: Presented in Problems by George William Hunter (1914).

This is the version of Hunter's Civic Biology that Scopes allegedly used to teach evolution. This version of the textbook was entered into evidence. The section on evolution starts on pages 192-196. References to Charles Darwin are on pages 253 and 404. Hunter deleted most of the information about evolution from his textbook when it was revised in 1926 following the Scopes trial.

A Civic Biology: Presented in Problems, by George William Hunter (1914).

This document consists of pages covering evolution from the biology textbook that Scopes used to violate Tennessee's anti-evolution statute.

The Belief in God and Immortality, by James H. Leuba (1916).

Leuba demonstrated that a college education greatly reduced the religious beliefs that students held before attending college. Leuba also noted that very few scientists believed in God. William Jennings Bryan was greatly influenced by this book because it strengthened his belief that teaching the theory of evolution in schools undermined the religious faith of students. This document includes excerpts from Leuba's book including the Introduction, table of contents and "PART II Statistical Study of the Belief in a Personal God and in Personal Immortality in the United States.

The Price of a Soul by William Jennings Bryan (1916).

Bryan was a prolific lecturer on religion. This message was first given as an address at a Northwestern Law School banquet and a commencement speech at the Peirce School in Philadelphia. Bryan later extended it into a lecture.

Billy Sunday: His Tabernacles and Sawdust Trails (1917).

A biography of Billy Sunday, the famous "baseball evangelist." Sunday, who gave up a professional baseball career with the Chicago White Stockings to preach full-time, went to Tennessee to energize fundamentalists against evolution.

Headquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium by Vernon Lyman Kellogg (1917).

William Jennings Bryan was horrified by the mass slaughter of World War I. He came to believe that German militarism that led to the war was based on the "survival of the fittest" doctrine from the theory of evolution. Bryan came to this conclusion largely as the result of reading Kellogg's book. Former president Theodore Roosevelt wrote this Foreword to the book: "One of the most graphic pictures of the German attitude, the attitude which has rendered this war inevitable, is contained in Vernon Kellogg's Headquarters Nights. It is a convincing, and an evidently truthful, exposition of the shocking, the unspeakably dreadful moral and intellectual perversion of character which makes Germany at present a menace to the whole civilized world. The man who reads Kellogg's sketch and yet fails to see why we are at war, and why we must accept no peace save that of overwhelming victory, is neither a good American nor a true lover of mankind.

Daniel vs. Darwinism by William B. Riley, Pastor, First Baptist Church, Minneapolis, Minn. (1918).

1. Daniel vs. Heathenism (page 5), 2. Daniel vs. Darwinism (page 23),3. Daniel vs. Sensualism (page 42), 4. Daniel vs. Bestialism (page 61), 5. This War and the Prophetic Word (page 85).

The Science of Power by Benjamin Kidd (1919).

In this book Benjamin Kidd tried to show a link between German military aggression and Darwin's theory and its impact on the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Kidd's book was one of the more important influences that led William Jennings Bryan to believe evolution was dangerous. Bryan quoted Kidd's book in his undelivered address that he had prepared for the trial but was prevented from giving. The address was published after Bryan's death.

Evolution-- a Menace, by J.W. Porter (1922).

Porter helped lead the fight to ban the teaching of evolution in Kentucky schools. The law was narrowly defeated in 1922. In this work, Porter quoted from and criticized several science text books including Hunter's Civic Biology, the text book John Scopes would use in 1925 to violate Tennessee's anti-evolution law.

God's Two Books: Or Plain Facts about Evolution, Geology, and the Bible by George McCready Price (1922).

William Jennings Bryan used Price's work to refute the theory of evolution. Bryan asked Price to appear as an expert witness for the prosecution but Price was lecturing in England and could not attend the trial. Price's work would gain a considerable following among fundamentalists some years after the Scopes trial. Price would eventually become one of the two most popular scientific authorities to fundamentalists.

God or Gorilla: How the Monkey Theory of Evolution Exposes Its Own Methods, Refutes Its Own Principles, Denies Its Own Inferences, Disproves Its Own Case by Alfred Watterson McCann (1922).

McCann, a Catholic journalist and nutritionist, criticizes evidence of missing links purporting to show man descended from apes. McCann turned down William Jennings Bryan's request to testify during the Scopes trial. McCann did not like the Butler Act because he did not believe in censorship of ideas.

In His Image by William Jennings Bryan (1922).

This is a collection of lectures given by Bryan. In the preface he states, "In these lectures I have had in mind two thoughts, first, the confirming of the faith of men and women, especially the young, in a Creator, all-powerful, all-wise, and all-loving, in a Bible, as the very Word of a Living God and in Christ as Son of God and Savior of the world; second, the applying of the principles of our religion to every problem in life."

Hell and the High Schools by T.T. Martin (1923).

T.T. (Thomas Theodore) Martin was an important leader in the anti-evolution movement. Hell and the High Schools is a vehement attack on the teaching of the theory of evolution in which Martin portrayed evolutionist teachers as the worst evil facing the country. Martin traveled to Dayton during the Scopes trial where he sold copies of Hell and the High Schools in the street near the courthouse. Martin pulled no punches in his condemnation of evolution: "[T]he Germans who poisoned candy and poured it out from aeroplanes that the starving Belgian and French children might eat it and die, were angels compared to the teachers paid by our taxes, who feed our children's minds with the deadly, soul-destroying poison of Evolution. . . . And the father and mother, who will stand by, and not go to the limit to protect their children from the soul destroying poison of Evolution, are equally guilty with the text-book writers and publishers and the Evolution professors in our schools."

Miscellaneous

The Kentucky Campaign Against the Teaching of Evolution by Alonzo W. Fortune (1922).

Published in The Journal of Religion, this piece describes the important anti-evolution battle in Kentucky just a few years prior to the Tennessee controversy.

Defense Strategy Document (1925).

In this two page document from the Clarence Darrow papers the defense analyzes how a federal court could have jurisdiction to hear a challenge to the Butler Act.

Strategy Note on the Possibility of Federal Jurisdiction to Challenge Butler Act (1925).

From the Clarence Darrow papers, this brief note discusses the possibility of getting federal jurisdiction to challenge the Butler Act.

Thomas Jefferson Quoted in Letter with Letterhead of Mrs. Samuel J. Rosensohn (1925).

This letter is from the Clarence Darrow papers. Samuel J. Rosensohn participated in the Scopes appeal to the Tennessee Supreme Court.

The Tennessee Evolution Case by Robert S. Keebler (1925).

Robert S. Keebler's controversial address at the annual meeting of the Tennessee Bar Association on June 26-27, 1925 caused an uproar and was expunged from the record by the president of the Tennessee Bar Association. Keebler was a Memphis attorney who later helped the Scopes defense on appeal.

The Battle Hymn of Tennessee by Mrs. E.P. Blair (1925).

This poem, published in the Nashville Tennessean on June 29, 1925, has a maternal theme supporting passage of the Butler Act, Tennessee's anti-evolution law. Many women in Tennessee supported passage of the law. The poem refers to the out-of-town lawyers and scientists for the defense:

"Their forces are clad in garments great,

Of science and law.

With the camouflage cloak of knowledge

To hide their claw."

Proceedings of the Forty-Fourth Annual Session of the Bar Association of Tennessee (1925).

This is an excerpt from proceedings that involve the Tennessee anti-evolution act, including a reference to remarks by Robert S. Keebler, a Memphis attorney. Keebler was very vocal in his criticism of the law. The discussion became heated and Keebler's remarks were ruled out of order and expunged from the record by the bar association president who also withdrew an invitation to Clarence Darrow to present his side of the case before the bar association. Keebler later assisted the defense appeal.

The New York Law Review requested that Scopes' attorneys publish an article about the case. (1925).

Letter to Lucille B. Milner of the ACLU in regard to West Virginia Case (1925).

Letter from the secretary to the Circuit Clerk of Taylor County West Virginia to Lucille B. Milner of the American Civil Liberties Union. The letter includes a copy of an opinion from a case in West Virginia that the plaintiff's counsel in that case believes has relevance to the Scopes case. From the Clarence Darrow Papers.

Letter to Lucille B. Milner of the ACLU About West Virginia Case (1925).

This letter was sent to inform the ACLU about a West Virginia case in which a high school teacher was not hired because she was Catholic. The letter was sent by a secretary to the Circuit Clerk of Taylor County, West Virginia. Milner was one of the founders of American Civil Liberties Union and she served as its executive secretary for 25 years. The letter is in the Clarence Darrow papers.

Walter Nelles Letter to Samuel Rosensohn (1925).

This letter discusses the Scopes defense. Walter Nelles and Samuel Rosensohn were both lawyers active in the ACLU. They also participated in ACLU meetings during which Clarence Darrow's participation in the Scopes defense was discussed. Rosensohn also signed the "Statement of facts assignment of errors, brief & argument in behalf of John Thomas Scopes, plaintiff-in-error."

Letter from David S. Garland to Samuel J. Rosensohn (1925).

Letter from an editor of the New York Law Review (New York University Law Review) to Samuel J. Rosensohn asking if there was interest in publishing an article about the Scopes case. Rosensohn was a New York lawyer with close ties to the ACLU. Rosensohn was originally part of the Scopes defense team but he was replaced by Arthur Garfield Hays as the sole ACLU representative in Dayton, Tennessee. Rosensohn later participated in Scopes' appeal. Letter from the papers of Clarence Darrow.

Telegram from The Nashville Tennessean Newspaper Asking About Counsel's Religious Beliefs (1925).

The Nashville Tennessean newspaper sent this telegram to Samuel Rosensohn of the ACLU, who worked with the Scopes defense. The telegram asked about the religious beliefs of the attorneys involved.

Cherish Literature and Science (1926).

This clip is part of the Scopes material in the Clarence Darrow papers. The writer refers to the explicit duty of the legislature written in the Tennessee Constitution "to cherish literature and science." The Scopes defense did raise this argument during the trial.

Randy Moore; The Long & Lingering Shadow of the Scopes Trial.

Randy Moore; The Long & Lingering Shadow of the Scopes Trial. The American Biology Teacher 1 February 2020; 82 (2): 81–84. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/abt.2020.82.2.81

Photos

Dr. John R. Neal & John T. Scopes. Clarence Darrow wrote in his autobiography: "When John T. Scopes was arrested he employed Mr. John H. Neal, a former law professor in the University of Tennessee, who, at the time, had established a law school at Knoxville. Mr. Neal is a man of ability, a good student, and has always supported progressive movements, but had not been active as a practitioner in his State. . . . Mr. John Neal had for years been a fighter for liberal causes, and must have been lonely indeed in these contests." Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-38215.	John T. Scopes. "A boy, twenty-one years old, had come from Kentucky and applied for a position as teacher in the high school. His name was John T. Scopes. And he was destined to be famous. He was a modest, studious, conscientious lad." Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life 247-48 (1996). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-38216.	William Jennings Bryan, c. 1907. In his autobiography Clarence Darrow wrote: "Mr. Bryan was the logical man to prosecute the case. He had not been inside a courtroom for forty years, but that made no difference, for he did not represent a real case; he represented religion, and in this he was the idol of all Morondom." Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-95709. Bryan Letter to Darrow	Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882). Charles Darwin's most famous work and the work most responsible for starting the evolution controversy is On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, which is usually abbreviated as "On the Origin of Species." It was published in 1859 when Darwin was 50 years old. Adding to the controversy was Darwin's The Descent of Man published in 1871. The book argued that the theory of evolution applied to man just as it did to the animal kingdom. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ61-104.
John T. Scopes. John was a good teacher. He had the respect of the whole town of Dayton and the affection of his pupils. Among other subjects, he taught biology; the work furnished as a textbook was Hunter's Biology. It seems strange that the Dayton school board did not adopt the first and second chapters of Genesis as a modern textbook on biology. Anyhow, Scopes told the little boys and girls that the origin of life was in the slime and ooze of the sea; that life developed from a germ, and gradually grew and changed until it reached the various forms of the life of to-day. For this he was indicted for the crime of teaching the truth." Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life.	Dayton, Tennessee. Dayton, in Rhea County, Tennessee, is about 36 miles north of Chattanooga, 80 miles south of Knoxville and 139 miles southeast of Nashville.	Governor Austin Peay. Governor Peay signed the Butler Act into law on March 21, 1925. In his signing statement he said: "After a careful examination, I can find nothing of consequence in the books now being taught in our schools with which this bill will interfere in the slightest manner. Therefore, it will not put our teachers in jeopardy. Probably the law will never be applied. It may not be sufficiently definite to permit of any specific application..." Governor Peay died in office on October 2, 1927. LC-DIG-ggbain-37226, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.	Darrow's Paradise! This editorial cartoon from the front page of the Memphis Commercial Appeal shows Clarence Darrow as the Anti-Christ looking down on "agnosticism, annihilation and spiritual despair."
H.L. Mencken. H.L. Mencken covered the trial for the Baltimore Sun. An outspoken critic who sharply criticized the South and religion, Mencken had preconceived ideas about Dayton, Tennessee. He told his readers: "The town, I confess, greatly surprised me. I expected to find a squalid Southern village, with darkies snoozing on the houseblocks, pigs rooting under the houses and the inhabitants full of hookworm and malaria. What I found was a country town of charm and even beauty." National Archives and Records Administration, ARC Identifier: 559126.	John Thomas Scopes (left) and George Washington Rappleyea (right), Dayton, Tennessee. From the Smithsonian Institution.	F.E. Robinson's Drugstore. The plan to challenge Tennessee's anti-evolution law in court was hatched in Robinson's drugstore in downtown Dayton Tennessee in early May, 1925. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution Archives, Record Unit 7091, Neg. # 2005-35068.	'William Jennings Bryan versus Clarence Darrow, July 20, 1925. William Jennings Bryan (seated at left) was questioned by Clarence Seward Darrow during the trial of State of Tennessee vs. John Thomas Scopes on July 20, 1925. The trial had been moved outside by the judge who claimed the crowd was too large and feared the floor might collapse. However, John Scopes believed the trial was moved outside because of the oppressive heat. This is a rare photo undiscovered until 2004. From the Smithsonian Institution.
John Thomas Scopes, Dayton, Tennessee. John Scopes was a relatively new teacher at the Rhea County high school where he had just completed his first year of teaching. He taught general science and coached the football team. Later, Scopes confirmed that he never actually taught evolution, but agreed to be the defendant for the test case because he disagreed with the anti-evolution law. From the Smithsonian Institution.	Rhea County High School, Dayton, Tennessee. Courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution Archives, Record Unit 7091, Neg. # SIA2008-1123.	Emanuel Haldeman-Julius. Emanuel Haldeman-Julius, publisher of the Little Blue Books, is shown in Dayton, Tennessee in July of 1925. The Defense Mansion was an old Victorian house owned by a coal and iron company and which had been quickly restored by George Washington Rappleyea to accommodate the defense team and their scientific witnesses. From the Smithsonian Institution.	Debate Solomon Goldman and Clarence Darrow: Is Religion Necessary. Solomon Goldman was born in Kozin, Volhynia, Russia on August 18, 1893. When he was a young child his family emigrated to the United States and lived in New York. He was ordained as a rabbi in 1918. Goldman served as a rabbi at the Congregation B''nai Israel in Brooklyn, New York, from 1917-1918. He was a rabbi at the Congregation B''nai Jeshurun in Cleveland from 1919-1922. He later moved to Chicago, to become rabbi at Congregation Anshe Emet, where he remained until his death in 1953. An active Zionist, he served as co-chairman of the United Jewish Appeal, and as president of the Zionist Organization of America from 1938-1940. He was active in many other Jewish and civic affairs. Courtesy of the Special Collections Department, University of Iowa Libraries.
Dudley F. Malone. Dudley Malone was one of Clarence Darrow's co-counsel on the Scopes defense. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, LC-DIG-ggbain-12389.	Dudley Field Malone c. 1913. Several observers of the Scopes trial believe Dudley Malone gave the most powerful speech of the trial. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-118913.	"Neath Palms and Sunshine" William Jennings Bryan's Presbyterian Tourist Bible Class, Miami, Florida. William Jennings Bryan moved his family to Florida in 1920. His weekly Bible class in Miami eventually attracted 5,000 people and had to meet in a park. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-126497.	Winterton Conway Curtis (1875 - 1966). Winterton C. Curtis, a zoologist at the University of Missouri, was one of eight scientific experts for the defense. Although the judge ruled in favor of the prosecution's motion to exclude expert testimony, he did allow the defense to read into the record summaries of statements prepared by their experts. As part of these summaries Arthur Garfield Hays read a letter written in 1922 by President Woodrow Wilson to Professor Curtis: "[O]f course, like every other man of intelligence and education, I do believe in organic evolution. It surprises me that at this late date such questions should be raised." This letter from President Wilson would also be cited by the defense in their appellate brief to the Supreme Court of Tennessee. From the Smithsonian Institution.
Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington. Born in Britain, Arthur S. Eddington was one of the most distinguished astrophysicists in the early 20th century. He is famous for writing articles explaining Einstein's Theory of Relativity to the English-speaking world and for confirming Einstein's theory by observations of a solar eclipse in May of 1919. Eddington was a Quaker and did not reject religion in favor of science. Darrow wrote in his autobiography: "One thing that especially impressed me was the eagerness with which all the religionists have seized upon the cryptic, imaginary, and more or less vapid assertions of Eddington and Jeans. No one doubts their learning and brilliancy in their special field, but that field is not religion. In that they stand like all the rest of us. Their claims carry no authority, but they are to be judged by their investigation of matter outside their realm, and on the consistency and reasonableness of their opinions." Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life 383 (1996). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-38064.	H.G. Wells. Herbert George Wells (1866 - 1946), better known as H. G. Wells, was a famous English science fiction writer. Wells argued against anti-evolutionists in his writings and public speaking. George Rappleyea and others promoting the Scopes trial for publicity contacted Wells in England and asked if he would present the case for evolution but Wells declined. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-21351.	Bainbridge Colby, Former Secretary of State c. 1920. Without informing the ACLU, George Rappleyea asked a New York attorney named Bainbridge Colby to defend Scopes. Colby agreed to serve with Clarence Darrow and Dudley Field Malone. The ACLU approved of Colby, but they then had to accept Darrow, who they did not want. Colby had formerly worked under William Jennings Bryan, was a founder of the United States Progressive Party and served as Woodrow Wilson's last Secretary of State. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-11813.	H. L. Mencken. Mencken was editor of the American Mercury and covered the trial for the Baltimore Sun. Mencken wrote scathing attacks against the South and religion. When William Jennings Bryan died five days after the Scopes trial, Mencken privately declared, "We killed the son of a bitch." But publicly he said that God had thrown a thunderbolt down to kill Clarence Darrow but missed and hit Bryan instead. http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Image:H_l_mencken .jpg
Clarence Darrow and Judge John F. Raulston. On Day Six of the trial a heated exchange occurred between Clarence Darrow and Judge Raulston: Darrow: "I do not understand why every request of the state and every suggestion of the prosecution should meet with an endless waste of time, and a bare suggestion of anything on our part should be immediately over-ruled." Court: "I hope you do not mean to reflect upon the court." Darrow: "Well, your honor has the right to hope." Court: "I have the right to do something else, perhaps." Darrow: "All right; all right." When the trial resumed the following Monday Judge Raulston held Darrow in contempt of court. Later that day Darrow apologized, the judge accepted with a short religious sermon, and all was forgiven. Library of Congress, LC-USZ62-95411.	William Jennings Bryan. As a leader of the anti-evolution movement, Bryan offered to assist the prosecution during the Scopes trial. In the early 1900s, Bryan had become increasingly alarmed about the teaching of evolution in public schools and what he perceived to be the application of the "survival of the fittest" doctrine in society, which could be used by the powerful to justify marginalizing the powerless. Bryan also believed that adherence to this theory led to German militancy and contributed to the slaughter of World War I. By 1921, Bryan was one of the leading critics of evolution in the United States. However, Bryan's views were more nuanced as he was mainly against teaching evolution in public schools at taxpayer expense. Bryan and many of his followers believed it was unfair that taxpayers were paying for the very instruction that was undermining their children's religious faith. Bryan was also against teaching evolution as fact instead of theory, and he was more concerned with teaching evolution as applied to humans. Bryan was not really concerned with its application to lower forms of life. Bryan Letter to Darrow.	Kirtley Fletcher Mather (1888 - 1978). Kirtley Mather, one of eight scientific experts for the defense, was a geology professor at Harvard University. Mather played the role of William Jennings Bryan to help Clarence Darrow prepare to cross-examine Bryan on the stand. From the Smithsonian Institution.	James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh (1581 - 1656). James Ussher was Archbishop of Armagh, Primate of All Ireland, Vice-Chancellor of Trinity College in Dublin, and a prolific scholar. Ussher calculated that the world was created in 4004 B.C. and first published this creation date in The Annals of the Old Testament. Ussher's calculation gained considerable influence because it was later published in many Bibles. During the trial, Darrow tried to force Bryan to accept Ussher's date of 4004 B.C. as accurate but Bryan stated, "That has been the estimate of a man that is accepted today. I would not say it is accurate." Later the movie and play Inherit the Wind misled the public to believe that Bryan had accepted Ussher's calculation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:James_Ussher_by_Sir _Peter_Lely.jpg
Maynard Mayo Metcalf (1868 - 1940). Maynard Metcalf, a zoologist from John Hopkins University, was the only scientific expert allowed to testify during the trial. Metcalf was a favorable defense witness because he was an established scientist and a religious man. He exemplified the defense's contention that science and religion could co-exist in their respective realms. From the Smithsonian Institution.	Robert Ingersoll. Colonel Robert Green Ingersoll (1833 - 1899) was a Civil War veteran, noted orator, political leader, and forceful defender of agnosticism who influenced Clarence Darrow. Some of his critics referred to him as "Injuresoul." This photo was created between 1865 and 1880. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-cwpbh-05181.	Roland Robbins, Joe Mendi & Gertrude Bauman. Joe Mendi was a famous chimpanzee used in movies. In 1925 Mendi made an appearance in Dayton, Tennessee as part of the Monkey trial. At one point he was photographed at Robinson's drugstore sipping a soda. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-npcc-27341.	The "Piltdown Man", discovered in England in 1912, was thought to be an unknown form of early human. For decades it was held up as proof of Darwin's theory. One of the greatest hoaxes in science, it took 40 years to discover that what was thought to be the skull of an unknown form of early human was actually the lower jawbone of an orangutan that had been deliberately combined with the skull of a fully developed, modern man. The photo is of a portrait painted by John Cooke in 1915. Back row (from left): F. O. Barlow, G. Elliot Smith, Charles Dawson, Arthur Smith Woodward. Front row: A. S. Underwood, Arthur Keith, W. P. Pycraft, and Sir Ray Lankester. http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Piltdown_Man
Excavation of the Piltdown man. The "Piltdown Man" is a famous hoax perpetrated using fragments of a skull and jawbone taken from a gravel pit at Piltdown, a village near Uckfield, East Sussex, England in 1912. The Piltdown Man was exposed as a forgery in 1953 when it was discovered that the find consisted of the lower jawbone of an orangutan that had been deliberately combined with the skull of a fully developed, modern man. http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/File:Piltdown excavation.jpg	Funeral Services of William Jennings Bryan, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, Washington, D.C. William Jennings Bryan died five days after the Scopes trial. It is estimated that more than 20,000 mourners visited the church while Bryan lay in state. The church is three blocks from the White House. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-npcc-27218.	Interior of Billy Sunday Tabernacle. Billy Sunday (William Ashley Sunday) (November 19, 1862 - November 6, 1935) was a professional baseball player for the Chicago White Stockings during the 1880s before becoming one of the most popular and influential American evangelists during the first two decades of the 20th century. Sunday was a very vocal opponent of teaching evolution in schools and he held revival meetings in Tennessee during the passage of Tennessee's anti-evolution statute. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.	Billy Sunday c. 1887 - 1890. Billy Sunday was a very successful professional baseball player with the Chicago White Stockings before becoming one of the most prominent preachers in the United States. An ardent opponent of the theory of evolution, Sunday preached in Tennessee to help support passage of Tennessee's anti-evolution statute. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-bbc-0155f.
William Paley (1743 - 1805). William Paley was an English theologian and well-known proponent of the watchmaker argument, a teleological justification for the existence of God. The argument states that the complexities of a watch must have been created by an intelligent designer. Therefore human beings, who are much more complex, must be created by an intelligent designer. Paley used his watchmaker analogy in his book Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature published in 1802. Charles Darwin studied Paley's book in school and for a time was convinced that Paley was right. But as he developed his theory of evolution, Darwin no longer found Paley's arguments supportable. Darwin wrote in his autobiography, "The old argument of design in nature, as given by Paley, which formerly seemed to me so conclusive, fails, now that the law of natural selection has been discovered." In his autobiography Clarence Darrow referenced Paley: "Seldom do the believers in mysticism fail to talk about the evidence of purpose and design shown in the universe itself. This idea runs back at least one hundred and five years, to Paley's Natural Theology. There was a time when this book was a part of the regular course in all schools of higher learning, which then included theology; but the book is now more likely to be found in museums." http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Image:William Paley.jpg	Billy Sunday. One of the most dynamic and influential fundamentalists of the 1920s, Billy Sunday held an 18 day revival in Tennessee to help support passage of Tennessee's anti-evolution law: "A senate committee had rejected such a bill prior to Sunday's arrival, but after his various sermons in Memphis drew crowds totaling some two hundred thousand people, the committee reversed itself, leading to enactment of the nation's first law against teaching evolution..." Edward John Larson, Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory 201 (2004). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-108493.	Thomas Henry Huxley. Thomas Huxley at age 32. Due to his family's financial troubles, Huxley was forced to leave school at age 10. Nonetheless, he went on to become one of the most respected autodidacts of the nineteenth century. http:// en.wikipedia.org /wiki/File:T.H.Huxley_1857 .jpg	Thomas Huxley at about age 55. Huxley was an English biologist who became known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his strong advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Huxley is credited with perhaps doing more than anyone else to advance acceptance of the theory among scientists and the general public. In a letter to Charles Darwin on November 23, 1859, regarding the Origin of Species, Huxley wrote: "I finished your book yesterday. . . Since I read Von Baer's Essays nine years ago no work on Natural History Science I have met with has made so great an impression on me & I do most heartily thank you for the great store of new views you have given me ... As for your doctrines I am prepared to go to the Stake if requisite ... I trust you will not allow yourself to be in any way disgusted or annoyed by the considerable abuse & misrepresentation which unless I greatly mistake is in store for you ... And as to the curs which will bark and yelp -- you must recollect that some of your friends at any rate are endowed with an amount of combativeness which (though you have often & justly rebuked it) may stand you in good stead -- I am sharpening up my claws and beak in readiness." http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Image:T.H.Huxley%28 Woodburytype%29.jpg
Thomas Henry Huxley at age 21. As a well-regarded British scientist, Huxley's support for Darwin was instrumental. http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Image: Young_Huxley_RN.jpg	Thomas Henry Huxley. Professor Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term "agnosticism" in 1869 during a meeting of the Metaphysical Society. However, some accounts say the meeting was held in 1876. Clarence Darrow wrote in his autobiography, "I had been reared by my father on books of science. Huxley's books had been household guests with us for years, and we had all of Darwin's as fast as they were published." The Story of My Life.	Luther Burbank. Luther Burbank was a world-famous horticulturist, botanist and agricultural science pioneer. His work in developing new plant varieties was seen as helping to prove evolution. Scopes' defense said before the trial that Burbank would testify; however, he had merely agreed to serve on their advisory committee. Burbank thought the trial was a joke but believed it would reduce the number of bigots. Judge Raulston appeared disappointed when he found out Burbank would not appear in person. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-55143.	Luther Burbank. Luther Burbank was a world-famous horticulturist, botanist and agricultural scientist whose skill in developing new plant varieties was well known to the public. William Jennings Bryan was worried about Burbank's influence on the evolution debate. He minimized Burbank's plant work, saying he had merely produced variations within a species and his work did not prove evolution was true. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-38962.
Luther Burbank. Luther Burbank was a world-famous horticulturist, botanist and agricultural science pioneer. Burbank was well known to the public for breeding new plant varieties which seemed to confirm evolution. Arthur Garfield Hays introduced a statement from Burbank during the Scopes trial. Burbank's work helped to influence passage of the 1930 Plant Patent Act four years after his death.	Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744 - 1829). Lamarck was a French naturalist whose ideas were largely attacked or ignored during his lifetime. He died in poverty. Lamarck was overshadowed by his rival and critic Georges Cuvier. However, Charles Darwin and others credited Lamarck for being an accomplished zoologist and early thinker about evolution. Lamarck is known for his theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, also called Lamarckism. http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/Image: Jean-baptiste_ lamarck2.jpg	Miriam A. Ferguson. When she was elected governor of Texas, Miriam Ferguson (1875 - 1961) became the first woman governor in the South. She ran as a Democrat after her husband was impeached in 1917 and removed as governor. In 1925 after the Scopes trial she directed the Texas textbook commission to delete references to the theory of evolution from high school textbooks. This forced text book publishers for decades to print special edited textbooks for Texas. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-37272.	Governor Charles E. Hughes c. 1908. Charles Evans Hughes Sr. (1862 - 1948) was a lawyer and Republican politician from New York. During his career Hughes served in the following positions: Governor of New York from 1907 to 1910, United States Secretary of State from 1921 to 1925, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1910 to 1916 and Chief Justice of the United States from 1930 to 1941. Hughes ran as the Republican candidate in the 1916 U.S. Presidential election which he lost to Woodrow Wilson. The American Civil Liberties Union did not want Clarence Darrow involved in the Scopes trial because they were afraid he would turn it into a battle against religion instead of focusing on Scopes freedom of speech and freedom to teach without censorship. But Scopes wanted Darrow. After the trial but before appeal, the ACLU hatched a plan to replace Darrow. This plan required the ACLU to turn over control of the case to a committee of well-known attorneys who would select as counsel Charles Evans Hughes. When Arthur Garfield Hays learned of this plan, he angrily rejected it. Hays believed Darrow and Malone should be credited for their work on the case; he also didn't want the conservative lawyers to take credit for the work of the liberal and radical attorneys who took the case to trial. Darrow refused to be pushed aside and he participated in the appeal. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-22472.
George McCready Price (1870 - 1963). George McCready Price was a Seventh-day Adventist, author and educator. He was a devoted creationist and a strong opponent of the theory of biological evolution. Price was a proponent of "flood geology" as an alternative to evolution. His views became more influential after his death, especially when the "creation science" movement started in the 1960s. Price was born in New Brunswick, Canada.	William Pickens, Field Secretary of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Pickens was an educator and syndicated columnist who viewed the anti-evolution movement of the 1920s as influenced by those wishing to promote white supremacy. Created/Published[between 1910 and 1920(?)]. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-127780.	Herbert Spencer. Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) was an English philosopher and political and social theorist. Spencer was enormously influential in Britain and the United States. He is credited with coining the phrase "survival of the fittest" which he came up with after reading Charles Darwin's work. In his 1864 work Principles of Biology Spencer wrote, "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called "natural selection", or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life." Some believe that Spencer has been unfairly criticized and his work is erroneously believed to justify no holds barred economic power and exploitation. Clarence Darrow was influenced by Spencer's writings. In Why I Am An Agnostic Darrow wrote, "Man has always speculated upon the origin of the universe, including himself. I feel, with Herbert Spencer, that whether the universe had an origin-- and if it had-- what the origin is will never be known by man." http:// en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Image:Spencer1 .jpg	Louis Agassiz ca. 1861. Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (1807 - 1873) was born in the village of Montier, in the French-speaking part of Switzerland. He attended universities in Switzerland and Germany and earned several degrees. In 1846 Agassiz traveled to the United States on a trip to investigate natural history and geology and to lecture on zoology. He accepted a position as a professor of zoology and geology at Harvard University in 1847. At Harvard, Agassiz founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology in 1859, served as its director, and became a renowned zoologist. He is considered one of the "founding fathers" of modern American scientific tradition. Agassiz was a very influential teacher and his innovative teaching methods profoundly influenced natural science education in the United States. He is also remembered for proposing the existence of Ice Ages in the world's history. Agassiz was one of the most well-respected critics of Darwin and biological evolution. He believed that very complex organs like the eye and ecologically dependent species like bees and flowers could not evolve according to the small and random steps of Darwin's theory. Agassiz also believed that "we are children of God, and not of monkeys." Agassiz was one of the last important and respected scientists to reject the theory of evolution. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ppmsca-08365.
Nicholas Murray Butler, President of Columbia University. Although he was alerted by Dr. Frank L. McVey, president of the University of Kentucky, about the threat posed by the anti-evolution movement in Kentucky, Butler did not think the threat was serious. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-npcc-04160.	George McCready Price. While being cross-examined by Clarence Darrow, William Jennings Bryan said that his views on the Great Flood were supported by George McCready Price. Darrow replied: "He has quoted a man that every scientist in this country knows is a mountebank and a pretender and not a geologist at all." However, according to Ronald L. Numbers, a prominent science historian, by the 1920s George McCready Price had "established a reputation, among friends and foes alike, as the most innovative and influential defender of special creation." Numbers also wrote of Price that of the anti-evolutionists, "a strong case can be made that he was the greatest." Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design (2006).	Dudley Field Malone, George Washington Rappleyea, John Neal, John T. Scopes, Clarence Darrow, unidentified man in straw hat. From the Smithsonian Institution.	Clarence S. Darrow Walking with Unidentified Man, Dayton, Tennessee, July 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution.
William Jennings Bryan. William Jennings Bryan was a prominent political and religious leader who ran for President of the United States three times. As a leader of the anti-evolution movement, Bryan offered to assist the prosecution during the Scopes trial. Bryan's involvement prompted Clarence Darrow to help defend John Scopes. Bryan Letter to Darrow	Doris Stevens. Doris Stevens (1892 - 1963) was a noted activist for women's rights. She was a co-founder of the Congressional Union for Women Suffrage in 1913 which later became the National Woman's Party. Arrested and jailed several times for protesting she wrote about her experiences in Jailed for Freedom published in 1920. During the Scopes trial she was married to Scopes defense lawyer Dudley Field Malone. At one point during the trial she told the press "I came all the way from New York to find that the defendant was a man, the prosecutor a man, the judge a man, the jury all men, the attorneys on both sides men ... One would think there weren't any women in this world, or that they didn't do any thinking." Baltimore Evening Sun, July 17, 1925, p. 2. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-22372.	Charles Hodge [between 1855 and 1865]. Charles Hodge (1797 - 1878) was the principal of Princeton Theological Seminary between 1851 and 1878. One of the most prominent defenders of historical Calvinism, Hodge was also an early vocal critic of evolution. In his 1874 book What is Darwinism? Hodge answered that it was atheism. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-cwpbh-02865.	Arthur Garfield Hays reading the scientists' testimony into the record, Scopes Trial, Dayton, Tennessee, July 20, 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution.
Asa Gray. Asa Gray (1810 - 1888) is considered the most important American botanist of the 19th century. Gray corresponded with Charles Darwin and arranged for the first publication of Darwin's Origin of Species in the United States. Gray was a devout Protestant and tried to convince Darwin that there was an intelligent design in nature. He was concerned about the religious implications of Darwin's work. Darwin told Gray that he had "no intention to write atheistically." Nonetheless, Gray was a staunch supporter of Darwin.	Vernon Kellogg. Vernon Myman Lyman Kellogg (1867 - 1937) was an American entomologist and professor of entomology at Stanford University from 1894 to 1920. One of his students was Herbert Hoover. Kellogg spent 1915 to 1916 in Brussels as director of Hoover's humanitarian American Commission for Relief in Belgium. Kellogg was a pacifist but while in Europe he dined with the officers of the German Supreme Command and became shocked by how the German military leaders used Darwin's theory of evolution, including the survival of the fittest, to justify military aggression. Kellogg came to believe that such ideas could only be defeated by force and he began to support American intervention in World War I. Kellogg recounted his meetings with the German military leaders in his book Headquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium. William Jennings Bryan, who was horrified by the mass slaughter of World War I, was deeply influenced by Kellogg's book which led him to believe that German militarism was based on the "survival of the fittest" doctrine from the theory of evolution. Kellogg was also one of the founding organizers of the National Research Council.	William Jennings Bryan at Various Ages. Photos of William Jennings Bryan showing him at ages ranging from four to forty-two. Bryan Letter to Darrow	The Commoner. In 1901 William Jennings Bryan founded a weekly paper called The Commoner that ran for 12 years. Bryan was sometimes called "The Great Commoner" because of his faith in the goodness of the common people. Bryan Letter to Darrow
William Jennings Bryan, Jr. William Jennings Bryan, Jr. was the only son of William Jennings Bryan. Bryan, Jr. participated in the Scopes prosecution. During the noon recess on the hottest day of the trial, Bryan Jr. and Wallace Haggard of the prosecution team went swimming with the defendant John Scopes in a mountain pond. They came back late but no one seemed to notice except Arthur Garfield Hays of the defense team, who yelled at Scopes, "Where the hell have you been?"	Algernon Sidney Crapsey. Algernon Sidney Crapsey (1847-1927) was an Episcopalian priest well known throughout the country. His progressive social ideas clashed with the traditional views of the church. Following a lecture in which he related Jesus' life to the physical one of the common man he was brought to trial for heresy in 1906. His popularity gained him considerable local and national support, but the Episcopal Church convicted him of heresy and he was defrocked. Although he did not have the approved church credentials, Dr. Crapsey continued to lecture, write, and support important social work until his death in 1927. A friend of Clarence Darrow, Crapsey wrote a letter to Darrow in May 1925 stating, "I would give the last hair on my head to be with you and Malone in Tennessee." Crapsey Letter to Darrow	Argument in Defense of the Communists. Nashville attorney KT McConnico was co-counsel for the state of Tennessee during Scopes appeal before the Tennessee Supreme Court. He had gathered some of Darrow's writings to study his opponent, including this pamphlet containing Darrow's closing argument in a 1920 Illinois trial in which he defended 20 members of the Communist Labor party. When Darrow saw his argument on the pile of paperwork McConnico had in front of him, he joked, "You won't have much time for anything else." Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion 218 (2006).	Dudley Field Malone, Dr. John R. Neal, and Clarence Darrow in Chicago, Illinois. Three members of the Scopes defense team. DN-0079177, Chicago Daily News negatives collection, Chicago Historical Society.
Has Religion Ceased to Function? This pamphlet cover asks a provocative debate question. Yes: Clarence Darrow. No: Professor Shirley Jackson Case. Clarence Darrow was well known as an agnostic and often presented his views about religion in debates.	Interior of Billy Sunday Tabernacle c. 1910. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.	William Jennings Bryan in the Courtroom at the Scopes Trial, Dayton, Tennessee, July 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution.	Hell and the High Schools by T.T. Martin. T.T. Martin (Thomas Theodore) wrote Hell and the High Schools in 1923, a vehement attack on teaching the theory of evolution that portrayed evolutionist teachers as worse than war criminals. Martin was a vocal presence in Dayton during the Scopes trial, where he sold copies of this book. Martin became a prominent leader in the anti-evolution movement in North Carolina when he sharply criticized the President of Wake Forest College in a series of articles. Martin held important leadership positions in national anti-evolution organizations, including the Anti-Evolution League of America and the Bible Crusaders of America. He participated in the successful campaign to enact anti-evolution legislation in Mississippi. Title page from Martin's book, full-text available above.
The Belief in God and Immortality by James H. Leuba. Leuba demonstrated that a college education greatly reduced the religious beliefs that students held before attending college. Leuba also noted that very few scientists believed in God. Leuba's book greatly influenced William Jennings Bryan because it strengthened his belief that teaching the theory of evolution in schools undermined the religious faith of students. Full-text available above.	God or Gorilla: How the Monkey Theory of Evolution Exposes Its Own Methods, Refutes Its Own Principles, Denies Its Own Inferences, Disproves Its Own Case by Alfred Watterson McCann. Title page from McCann's book. McCann was a Catholic journalist and nutritionist. In this book published in 1922, he criticizes evidence of missing links purporting to show man descended from apes. McCann turned down William Jennings Bryan's request to testify during the Scopes trial. McCann did not like the Butler Act because he did not believe in censorship of ideas. Full-text available above.	The Science of Power by Benjamin Kidd. Kidd's book persuaded William Jennings Bryan to believe evolution was dangerous. Bryan quoted Kidd's book in his undelivered address that he had prepared for the trial but was prevented from delivering. The address was published after Bryan's death. The full-text of Kidd's book is available above.	Reverend John Roach Straton. John Straton was a prominent pastor and one of the most important leaders of the anti-evolution campaign during the 1920s. After the Scopes trial, Straton and other outspoken anti-evolutionists challenged Clarence Darrow to debate but Darrow refused. Darrow wrote in his autobiography: "Man is not only the home of microbes, but of all sorts of vain and weird delusions. How does he come to think himself so important? Man really assumes that the entire universe was made for him; that while it is run by God it is still run for man. God is just a sort of caterer whose business it is to find out what men want and then supply these wants. I remember John Roach Straton telling how God saved his life by coming down from heaven and opening his automobile door so that the reverend gentleman could get out and avoid an accident. He regarded it as nothing strange or incongruous that God should act as his chauffeur at that exact instant. The story would have seemed more reasonable if God had kept him alive awhile longer after having taken the trouble to save his life." Clarence Darrow, The Story of My Life. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-29640.
Clarence S. Darrow Talking with Group of Men, Dayton, Tennessee, July 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution	George W. Rappleyea. In 1929 Rappleyea became Vice President of Higgins Boat Industries, the maker of the famous Higgins landing crafts used in World War II. Higgins boats are credited with helping to win the war for the Allies. In 1946 Rappleyea became Secretary-Treasurer of the Marsallis Construction Company in New Orleans. In March 1947 Rappleyea and others were arrested in New Orleans for conspiracy to violate the National Firearms Act. According to Time Magazine, "William Marsalis and George Rappleyea had a hole-in-the-wall office in New Orleans, a houseful of guns in Gulfport, Miss., plus two landing ships, four P-38s and four tanks. They insisted that they were interested only in opening up the mahogany wilderness of British Honduras." In March 1948, Rappleyea pleaded guilty in a federal court in Biloxi, Mississippi to conspiracy to ship arms and ammunition to British Honduras. He was sentenced to one year in prison. From the Smithsonian Institution	A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom by Andrew Dickson White. Andrew Dickson White was a co-founder of Cornell University as well as a U.S. diplomat, author, and educator. Arthur Garfield Hays was greatly influenced by White's two volume work and quoted from it during the Scopes trial. In Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate Over Science and Religion Edward J. Larson points out that Andrew Dickson White and John William Draper wrote enormously popular but highly biased histories of the relationship between science and religion. Neither author reported that there was a growing harmony between theologians and evolutionists. They also neglected to mention that most prominent physical scientists during this time period were devout Christians. By 1925, the "warfare model of science and religion" was accepted by many secular Americans. Darrow quoted Draper and White in his public addresses when he denounced Christianity. Full-text of both volumes of White's work is available above.	George Washington Rappleyea. This photo was taken the month before the Scopes Trial. Image ID: SIA2008-1099, Smithsonian Photography Initiative
Orang Skull and Human Skull. This caption reads in part: "None but a ape-manologist can see in them the faintest resemblence." From God or Gorilla: How the Monkey Theory of Evolution Exposes Its Own Methods, Refutes Its Own Principles, Denies Its Own Inferences, Disproves Its Own Case by Alfred Watterson McCann.	God's Two Books: Or, Plain Facts about Evolution, Geology, and the BibleM by George McCready Price. William Jennings Bryan used Price's work to refute the theory of evolution. Bryan asked Price to appear as an expert witness for the prosecution in the Scopes trial, but Price was lecturing in England and could not attend. Price's work would gain a considerable following among fundamentalists some years after the Scopes trial. Price would eventually become one of the two most popular scientific authorities to fundamentalists. Full-text available above.	Merchant's Gargling Oil for Man and Beast c. 1873. The caption reads: "If I am Darwin's grandpapa, It follows don't you see, That what is good for man and beast Is doubly good for me." Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-48534.	Reverend John Roach Straton. John Roach Straton was one of the three most prominent leaders of the national anti-evolution movement along with William Jennings Bryan and William Bell Riley. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-33956.
William Jennings Bryan Questioned by Clarence Darrow, Monday July 20, 1925. On the second last day of the trial the judge moved the proceedings outside. Defense lawyers for Scopes (John R. Neal, Arthur Garfield Hays, and Dudley Field Malone) are visible seated to the extreme right. One of the men at left, with his back to the photographer, appears to be Scopes. The court reporters are seated at the table. From the Smithsonian Institution	A Civic Biology: Presented in Problems by George William Hunter. Title page from the 1914 edition of the biology textbook John Scopes allegedly used to teach evolution. Full-text available above.	George Washington Rappleyea (L) and John Thomas Scopes (R). George Rappleyea managed the Cumberland Coal & Iron Company, visible in the background. From the Smithsonian Institution	Headquarters Nights: A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium by Vernon Lyman Kellogg. William Jennings Bryan was horrified by the mass slaughter of World War I. He came to believe that German militarism that led to the war was based on the "survival of the fittest" doctrine from the theory of evolution. Bryan came to this conclusion largely as the result of reading Kellogg's book. Vernon Myman Lyman Kellogg was an American entomologist (Entomology - scientific study of insects). Full-text of "Headquarters Nights" is available above.
F.E. Robinson's Drugstore, Main Street, Dayton, Tennessee, June 1925. F.E. Robinson was president of the local school board. During Prohibition, the drugstore's soda fountain became a gathering place for local businessmen, attorneys, and teachers. The plan to challenge Tennessee's anti-evolution law in court was hatched in Robinson's drugstore in early May, 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution	G.K. Chesterton. Gilbert Keith Chesterton (1874 - 1936) is considered one of the most influential English writers of the 20th century. His friend George Bernard Shaw called him a "colossal genius." Chesterton and Clarence Darrow debated religion and evolution at the Mecca Temple in New York City in 1931. Several commentators believed that Chesterton won the debate. Titled "Will the World Return to Religion?" One source says there are no transcripts of the debate. A vote was taken afterwards with 2,359 voting that Chesterton had won and 1,022 for Darrow. See Joseph Pearce, Literary Giants, Literary Catholics 212 (2005). LC-DIG-ggbain-06610, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.	Evolution-- a Menace by J.W. Porter. Baptist minister John W. Porter helped lead the fight to ban the teaching of evolution in Kentucky schools. A Kentucky bill was narrowly defeated in 1922. In this work, Porter quoted from and criticized several science textbooks including Hunter's Civic Biology, the text book John Scopes would use in 1925 to violate Tennessee's anti-evolution law. Full-text available above.	History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science by John William Draper. One of the most influential works that created a "warfare model" between science and religion. Full-text available above.
F.E. Robinson's Drugstore, Main Street, Dayton, Tennessee, June 1925. F.E. Robinson was president of the local school board. During Prohibition, the drugstore's soda fountain became a gathering place for local businessmen, attorneys, and teachers. The plan to challenge Tennessee's anti-evolution law in court was hatched in Robinson's drugstore in early May, 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution	Ernst Haeckel. Haeckel was a German zoologist who became an ardent supporter of evolution. Originally trained as a doctor, he left the practice of medicine after reading Darwin's The Origin of Species. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-05698.	The Seven Scientists Asked to Testify for the Defense Standing in Front of the Defense Mansion. "Back row, left to right: Horatio Hackett Newman, Maynard Mayo Metcalf, Fay-Cooper Cole, Jacob Goodale Lipman; Front row, left to right: Winterton Conway Curtis, Wilbur A. Nelson, William Marion Goldsmith. The Defense Mansion was a Victorian house where the defense team and witnesses stayed during the trial." From the Smithsonian Institution	The Finality of the Higher Criticism, or The Theory of Evolution and False Theology by William Bell Riley. William Bell Riley began his ministry as pastor of the First Baptist Church in Minneapolis, Minnesota and served there for 45 years. Riley has been identified as the first fundamentalist leader to link "higher criticism" with the theory of evolution. In this book published in 1909, Riley argued that the liberal theology of higher criticism is a result of accepting the theory of evolution. Higher criticism is an inquiry into the genuineness of Bible teaching. Lower criticism, also called textual criticism, tries to determine what a text originally said before it was altered intentionally or by mistake. Lower criticism evaluates which Bible texts are most accurate. Higher criticism views the Bible as a text created by human beings with various motives at different periods of time. Lower criticism views the Bible as the inerrant word of God. The full text is available above.
Chimpanzee. The chimpanzee was one of the iconic symbols of the Scopes trial. The caption reads in part "Man might look like this were it not for the soul which hundreds of millions of intelligent beings believe was created in the image and likeness of God." Photo from God or Gorilla: How the Monkey Theory of Evolution Exposes Its Own Methods, Refutes Its Own Principles, Denies Its Own Inferences, Disproves Its Own Case by Alfred Watterson McCann (1922).	Skulls of Gorilla, Man, Orang. Caption reads in part: "Where are the "resemblances"? The differences speak for themselves." The caption also accuses Haeckel of fraud in his sketches comparing the skulls of man and apes. Ernst Haeckel was a German zoologist who became an ardent supporter of evolution. Anti-evolutionists despised the notion that man was related to other primates. From God or Gorilla: How the Monkey Theory of Evolution Exposes Its Own Methods, Refutes Its Own Principles, Denies Its Own Inferences, Disproves Its Own Case by Alfred Watterson McCann.	Should Evolution Be Taught in Tax Supported Schools? W.B. Riley was an influential religious leader, anti-evolutionist and pastor of the First Baptist Church in Minneapolis for 45 years. William Jennings Bryan once called Riley "the greatest Christian statesman in the American pulpit." Joseph Martin McCabe, from England, was a Franciscan monk for 12 years before leaving the order and becoming a writer and speaker on freedom of thought. The full text is available above.	George Washington Rappleyea. George Rappleyea (1894 - 1966) was the prime instigator in challenging Tennessee's anti-evolution law. He believed a trial would generate publicity and tourism for Dayton, Tennessee, which was suffering economically. Rappleyea was a civil engineer who came from New York to Dayton to manage ironworks in the area for out-of-state owners. He and others hatched the plan to challenge the law after he saw an ACLU advertisement in a newspaper offering to defend anyone in Tennessee who would challenge the law. Although not an attorney, he was an open supporter of Scopes, hosted defense lawyers and expert witnesses, and often sat with the defense team during the trial. From the Smithsonian Institution
An Outline of the Theory of Organic Evolution by Maynard Mayo Metcalf. Dr. Metcalf, a zoologist from Johns Hopkins University, was the only scientific expert allowed to testify on the stand for the defense during the Scopes trial. Full-text of this book is available above.	Clarence S. Darrow (center) standing near Rhea County Courthouse with unidentified man (left) and Arthur Garfield Hays (right), Dayton, Tennessee, probably July 20, 1925. "The morning of July 20, 1925, promised to be one of the month's hottest. Legal fireworks were also expected in the courtroom. On Friday, July 17, Judge John T. Raulston had threatened to cite Darrow for contempt. Darrow is holding a Chattanooga newspaper describing the episode, and he is probably about to enter the courthouse, where he would apologize before proceeding with the defense of John Thomas Scopes. From the Smithsonian Institution	Howard Gale Byrd, Charles Francis Potter, with Byrd's Children John and Lillian, in Front of Byrd's Parsonage in Dayton, Tennessee. Charles Francis Potter was a Unitarian minister, theologian and author who over the course of many years changed from an evangelical Baptist to a radical Humanist. Potter was a Bible expert for Clarence Darrow and the defense during the Scopes trial. Potter also gave the opening prayer one morning of the trial. Howard Gale Byrd was the pastor of the Dayton Methodist Episcopal Church and also of the slightly more conservative Five Points Methodist Episcopal Church. Byrd resigned from the Dayton Methodist Episcopal Church when some of his congregation objected to a proposed sermon by Charles Francis Potter that Potter and George Rappleyea advertized with flyers as being about evolution. From the Smithsonian Institution	Triassic Shoe Sole Fossil. This is allegedly a fossil of a shoe or moccasin sole found in blue limestone rock in 1917 in Nevada, dating to the Triassic period of about 100,000,000 years ago. If true, this would mean it predated the appearance of the ape-like creatures that man supposedly descended from. Anti-evolutionists pointed to the fossil as proof that man did not evolve from lower forms of animals. They insisted that the fossil shows stitching that was made by an early human. The "fossil" was generally dismissed as a natural formation.
Main Street Dayton, Tennessee. Due to a loss of jobs the population of Dayton was less than 1,800 by the time of the Scopes trial. This photo was taken the month before the trial; Robinson's drugstore is shown on the right. From the Smithsonian Institution	Vernon Kellogg. Kellogg's influential book Headquarters Nights was originally published in serial form in the Atlantic Monthly. President Wilson used it to support his decision to enter World War I. Kellogg's recognized expertise as a biologist and supporter of evolution gave authority to his conclusion that Germany was misapplying Darwin's theory to justify military aggression. Anti-evolutionists, including William Jennings Bryan, would use Kellogg's book to illustrate that Darwin's theory of evolution was dangerous. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-hec-09391.	J. Frank Norris (left) and Reverend J. Roach Straton (right). John Franklyn (J. Frank) Norris was an important national fundamentalist leader. As pastor of the largest church in the Dallas-Ft. Worth area, Norris helped lead the anti-evolution movement in Texas. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-34064.	Walter Lippmann. Walter Lippmann was an influential journalist and political commentator. In 1928, Lippmann wrote the book American Inquisitors: A Commentary on Dayton and Chicago in which he commented on the Scopes trial. Lippmann compared Bryan and the fundamentalists' arguments to the views of Thomas Jefferson about religion and government. He also compared Tennessee's Butler Act with the "Virginia Act For Establishing Religious Freedom" which was largely written by Jefferson. Lippmann focused on Jefferson's words in The Virginia Act: "to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves, is sinful and tyrannical." In analyzing the Butler Act, Lippmann concluded: "You will note that the Tennessee statute does not prohibit the teaching of the evolution theory in Tennessee. It merely prohibits the teaching of that theory in schools which the people of Tennessee are compelled by law to contribute money. Jefferson had said that it was sinful and tyrannical to compel a man to furnish contributions of money for the propagation of opinions which he disbelieves. The Tennessee legislators representing the people of their state were merely applying this principle. They disbelieved in the evolution theory, and they set out to free their constituents of the sinful and tyrannical compulsion to pay for the propagation of an opinion which they disbelieved." Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-hec-21695.
Main Street Dayton, Tennessee. Due to a loss of jobs the population of Dayton was less than 1,800 by the time of the Scopes trial. This photo was taken the month before the trial; Robinson's drugstore is shown on the right. From the Smithsonian Institution	Bryan's Last Speech: The Most Powerful Argument Against Evolution Ever Made. This cover is from a pamphlet containing the speech William Jennings Bryan had prepared for the trial but was unable to give because the defense decided not make a closing statement. This prevented the prosecution from making their closing statement. This was a deliberate move to block Bryan from delivering a speech he had been working on since before he went to Dayton. On July 26, 1925, just five days after the trial, Bryan died in his sleep. Just hours before he died, he had made arrangements to have this speech published.	Clarence S. Darrow interrogating William Jennings Bryan, Scopes Trial, Dayton, Tennessee, July 20, 1925. From the Smithsonian Institution	Rhea County Court House, Dayton, Tennessee. Rhea County Court House, Dayton, Tennessee.
John T. Scopes - Defendant.	Listening to Darrow Apologize for Contempt of Court.	Judge Ralston Forgving Him. Judge Ralston forgving Darrow of contempt.	Stewart, Malone and Darrow. Stewart, Malone and Darrow Arguing about Prayer in the Court.
Judge John T. Ralston.	William Jennings Bryan. At Attorney's Table During Scopes Trial.	Courtroom and Jury just before Verdict.	Clarence Darrow of Defense Counsel.